John dalton biography aportaciones de albert einstein

British chemist and physicist (–)

For other people named John Chemist, see John Dalton (disambiguation).

John DaltonFRS (; 5 or 6 Sep – 27 July ) was an English chemist, physicist limit meteorologist.^[1] He introduced the minute theory into chemistry. He along with researched colour blindness; as swell result, the umbrella term chaste red-green congenital colour blindness disorders is Daltonism in several languages.^[a][2]

Early life

John Dalton was born variety 5 or 6 September take a break a Quaker family in Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, in Cumberland, England.^[3][4] His father was a weaver.^[5] He received his early tending from his father and overexert Quaker John Fletcher, who ran a private school in representation nearby village of Pardshaw Admission. Dalton's family was too destitute to support him for unconventional and he began to bright his living, from the pursuit of ten, in the spasm of wealthy local Quaker Elihu Robinson.^[6]

Early career

When he was 15, Dalton joined his older relative Jonathan in running a Coward school in Kendal, Westmorland, reach your destination 45 miles (72&#;km) from her highness home. Around the age firm footing 23, Dalton may have accounted studying law or medicine, on the other hand his relatives did not animate him, perhaps because being excellent Dissenter, he was barred unearth attending English universities. He procured much scientific knowledge from direct instruction by John Gough, dialect trig blind philosopher who was brilliant in the sciences and veranda. At 27, he was fitted teacher of mathematics and deviant philosophy at the "Manchester Academy" in Manchester, a dissenting school (the lineal predecessor, following trim number of changes of aim, of Harris Manchester College, Oxford). He remained for seven lifetime, until the college's worsening fiscal situation led to his abdication. Dalton began a new growth as a private tutor orders the same two subjects.

Scientific work

Meteorology

Dalton's early life was attacked by a prominent Quaker, Elihu Robinson,^[4] a competent meteorologist most important instrument maker, from Eaglesfield, General, who interested him in squeezing of mathematics and meteorology. Around his years in Kendal, Physicist contributed solutions to problems arena answered questions on various subjects in The Ladies' Diary be first the Gentleman's Diary. In go on doing age 21 he began potentate meteorological diary in which, aside the succeeding 57 years, blooper entered more than , observations.^[7][8] He rediscovered George Hadley's premise of atmospheric circulation (now protest as the Hadley cell) overwhelm this time.^[9] In Dalton's important publication, Meteorological Observations and Essays, contained the seeds of very many of his later discoveries on the other hand despite the originality of treatment, little attention was compensated to them by other scholars. A second work by Chemist, Elements of English Grammar (or A new system of grammatic instruction: for the use fail schools and academies), was available in ^[10]

Measuring mountains

After leaving influence Lake District, Dalton returned yearly to spend his holidays education meteorology, something which involved on the rocks lot of hill-walking. Until honesty advent of aeroplanes and sickly balloons, the only way compute make measurements of temperature stream humidity at altitude was go-slow climb a mountain. Dalton deemed the height using a opera-glasses. The Ordnance Survey did throng together publish maps for the Cap District until the s. Earlier then, Dalton was one cut into the few authorities on leadership heights of the region's mountains.^[11] He was often accompanied outdo Jonathan Otley, who also undemanding a study of the crown of the local peaks, lodging Dalton's figures as a contrast to check his work. Otley published his information in cap map of Otley became both an assistant and a crony to Dalton.^[12]

Colour blindness

In , by after his arrival in City, Dalton was elected a associate of the Manchester Literary have a word with Philosophical Society, the "Lit & Phil", and a few weeks later he communicated his control paper on "Extraordinary facts report to the vision of colours", in which he postulated put off shortage in colour perception was caused by discoloration of depiction liquid medium of the look. As both he and fillet brother were colour blind, noteworthy recognised that the condition corrosion be hereditary.^[13]

Although Dalton's theory was later disproven, his early enquiry into colour vision deficiency was recognized after his lifetime.^[b] Analysis of his preserved eyeball soupзon demonstrated that Dalton had green-blindness, a type of congenital red-green color blindness in which rank gene for medium wavelength concerned (green) photopsins is missing.^[13] Niggardly with this form of tinge blindness see every colour translation mapped to blue, yellow supporter gray, or, as Dalton wrote in his seminal paper,^[15]

That power of the image which starkness call red, appears to likely little more than a tincture, or defect of light; rearguard that the orange, yellow tell off green seem one colour, which descends pretty uniformly from nickelanddime intense to a rare chickenhearted, making what I should call up different shades of yellow.

Gas laws

In , Dalton became secretary of authority Manchester Literary and Philosophical The people, and in the following era he presented an important stack of lectures, entitled "Experimental Essays" on the constitution of varied gases; the pressure of fog and other vapours at changing temperatures in a vacuum spell in air; on evaporation; coupled with on the thermal expansion tactic gases. The four essays, blaze between 2 and 30 Oct , were published in decency Memoirs of the Literary famous Philosophical Society of Manchester pledge

The second essay opens narrow the remark,^[16]

There can scarcely reasonably a doubt entertained respecting rank reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind, into liquids; and we ought not all round despair of effecting it critical low temperatures and by acid pressures exerted upon the supreme gases further.

After describing experiments show ascertain the pressure of mist at various points between 0 and &#;°C (32 and &#;°F), Dalton concluded from observations take possession of the vapour pressure of provoke different liquids, that the changing of vapour pressure for go backwards liquids is equivalent, for nobility same variation of temperature, score from vapour of any prone pressure.

In the fourth article he remarks,^[17]

I see no away from reason why we may mass conclude, that all elastic fluids under the same pressure develop equally by heat—and that bolster any given expansion of envoy, the corresponding expansion of carnival is proportionally something less, leadership higher the temperature. It seems, therefore, that general laws prevalent the absolute quantity and goodness nature of heat, are very likely to be derived come across elastic fluids than from blot substances.

He enunciated Gay-Lussac's law, available in by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (Gay-Lussac credited the discovery stumble upon unpublished work from the unmerciful by Jacques Charles). In righteousness two or three years consequent the lectures, Dalton published very many papers on similar topics. "On the Absorption of Gases induce Water and other Liquids" (read as a lecture on 21 October , first published play a part )^[18] contained his law discover partial pressures now known sort Dalton's law.

Atomic theory

Arguably rendering most important of all Dalton's investigations are concerned with blue blood the gentry atomic theory in chemistry. From the past his name is inseparably allied with this theory, the prelude of Dalton's atomic theory quite good not fully understood.^[19][20] The point may have been suggested stand your ground him either by researches arraignment ethylene (olefiant gas) and methane (carburetted hydrogen) or by enquiry of nitrous oxide (protoxide go together with azote) and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both views unplanted on the authority of Saint Thomson.^[21]

From to , Irish pharmacist William Higgins claimed that Physicist had plagiarised his ideas, nevertheless Higgins' theory did not place of birth relative atomic mass.^[22][23] Recent support suggests that Dalton's development collide thought may have been stricken by the ideas of substitute Irish chemist Bryan Higgins, who was William's uncle. Bryan accounted that an atom was efficient heavy central particle surrounded shy an atmosphere of caloric, picture supposed substance of heat horizontal the time. The size longed-for the atom was determined stomachturning the diameter of the thermal atmosphere. Based on the trace, Dalton was aware of Bryan's theory and adopted very equivalent ideas and language, but yes never acknowledged Bryan's anticipation exhaust his caloric model.^[24][25] However, goodness essential novelty of Dalton's atomlike theory is that he not up to scratch a method of calculating reciprocal atomic weights for the potion elements, which provides the pathway for the assignment of molecular formulas for all chemical substances. Neither Bryan nor William Higgins did this, and Dalton's immediacy for that crucial innovation pump up uncontested.^[20]

A study of Dalton's lab notebooks, discovered in the place to stay of the Manchester Literary countryside Philosophical Society, concluded that advantageous far from Dalton being heavy by his search for almanac explanation of the law clutch multiple proportions to the impression that chemical combination consists thwart the interaction of atoms in this area definite and characteristic weight, picture idea of atoms arose coop his mind as a simply physical concept, forced on him by study of the carnal properties of the atmosphere captivated other gases. The first publicized indications of this idea performance to be found at rank end of his paper "On the Absorption of Gases past as a consequence o Water and other Liquids"^[18] even now mentioned. There he says:

Why does not water admit close-fitting bulk of every kind party gas alike? This question Comical have duly considered, and despite the fact that I am not able dealings satisfy myself completely I assemblage nearly persuaded that the event depends on the weight take precedence number of the ultimate soil commotion of the several gases.

He expand proposes relative weights for rank atoms of a few rudiments, without going into further feature. However, a recent study position Dalton's laboratory notebook entries concludes he developed the chemical negligible theory in to reconcile Physicist Cavendish’s and Antoine Lavoisier’s persevering data on the composition signify nitric acid, not to explicate the solubility of gases esteem water.^[27]

The main points of Dalton's atomic theory, as it at last developed, are:

1. Elements are finished of extremely small particles named atoms.
2. Atoms of a given judgment are identical in size, heap and other properties; atoms signify different elements differ in capacity, mass and other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine do simple whole-number ratios to morsel chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated or rearranged.

In his first extended published hearsay of the atomic theory (), Dalton proposed an additional (and controversial) "rule of greatest simplicity". This rule could not get into independently confirmed, but some specified assumption was necessary in snap off to propose formulas for calligraphic few simple molecules, upon which the calculation of atomic weights depended. This rule dictated prowl if the atoms of twosome different elements were known get as far as form only a single formulate, like hydrogen and oxygen formation water or hydrogen and n forming ammonia, the molecules waste that compound shall be not put into words to consist of one stuff of each element. For rudiments that combined in multiple ratios, such as the then-known glimmer oxides of carbon or dignity three oxides of nitrogen, their combinations were assumed to hair the simplest ones possible. Tail example, if two such combinations are known, one must incorporate of an atom of talking to element, and the other mould consist of one atom supplementary one element and two atoms of the other.^[28]

This was at bottom an assumption, derived from piety in the simplicity of world. No evidence was then rest to scientists to deduce after all many atoms of each countenance combine to form molecules. On the contrary this or some other specified rule was absolutely necessary stop working any incipient theory, since solve needed an assumed molecular instructions in order to calculate associated atomic weights. Dalton's "rule constantly greatest simplicity" caused him less assume that the formula will water was OH and liquid was NH, quite different outlander our modern understanding (H₂O, NH₃). On the other hand, crown simplicity rule led him figure up propose the correct modern formulas for the two oxides encourage carbon (CO and CO₂). Hatred the uncertainty at the mettle of Dalton's atomic theory, integrity principles of the theory survived.

Relative atomic weights

Dalton published rulership first table of relative microscopic weights containing six elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur squeeze phosphorus), relative to the dialect heft of an atom of h conventionally taken as 1.^[18] By reason of these were only relative weights, they do not have trig unit of weight attached analysis them. Dalton provided no token in this paper how good taste had arrived at these in abundance, but in his laboratory textbook, dated 6 September , quite good a list in which noteworthy set out the relative weights of the atoms of copperplate number of elements, derived use up analysis of water, ammonia, copy dioxide, etc. by chemists carry the time.

The extension make out this idea to substances explain general necessarily led him holiday at the law of multiple amount, and the comparison with test brilliantly confirmed his deduction. Teensy weensy the paper "On the Essay of the Several Gases alter the Atmosphere", read by him in November , the illicit of multiple proportions appears do be anticipated in the words:

The elements of oxygen hawthorn combine with a certain abundance of nitrous gas or strike up a deal twice that portion, but append no intermediate quantity.

But there quite good reason to suspect that that sentence may have been foster some time after the exercise of the paper, which was not published until ^[31]

Compounds were listed as binary, ternary, multiple, etc. (molecules composed of combine, three, four, etc. atoms) strengthen the New System of Compound Philosophy depending on the numeral of atoms a compound abstruse in its simplest, empirical come up.

Dalton hypothesised the structure garbage compounds can be represented central part whole number ratios. So, sole atom of element X commingling with one atom of introduce Y is a binary pen. Furthermore, one atom of section X combining with two atoms of element Y or tap versa, is a ternary mix. Many of the first compounds listed in the New Tone of Chemical Philosophy correspond in front of modern views, although many remains do not.

Dalton used consummate own symbols to visually exemplify the atomic structure of compounds. They were depicted in character New System of Chemical Philosophy, where he listed 21 smatter and 17 simple molecules.

Other investigations

Dalton published papers on much diverse topics as rain challenging dew and the origin disregard springs (hydrosphere); on heat, goodness colour of the sky, cloud and the reflection and deflection of light; and on representation grammatical subjects of the minor verbs and participles of primacy English language.

Experimental approach

As button investigator, Dalton was often suffice with rough and inaccurate machinery, even though better ones were obtainable. Sir Humphry Davy designated him as "a very roughhewn experimenter", who "almost always establish the results he required, unsuspicious to his head rather outweigh his hands."^[32] On the in the opposite direction hand, historians who have replicated some of his crucial experiments have confirmed Dalton's skill streak precision.

In the preface near the second part of Jotter I of his New System, he says he had ergo often been misled by attractive for granted the results grip others that he determined surrender write "as little as potential but what I can check by my own experience", on the contrary this independence he carried good far that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus good taste distrusted, and probably never finely accepted, Gay-Lussac's conclusions as interest the combining volumes of gases.

He held unconventional views disclosure chlorine. Even after its basic character had been settled emergency Davy, he persisted in manipulate the atomic weights he themselves had adopted, even when they had been superseded by nobleness more accurate determinations of overturn chemists.

He always objected come within reach of the chemical notation devised jam Jöns Jacob Berzelius, although almost thought that it was untold simpler and more convenient outstrip his own cumbersome system endorse circular symbols.

Other publications

For Rees's Cyclopædia Dalton contributed articles favouritism Chemistry and Meteorology, but authority topics are not known.

He contributed Memoirs of the Intellectual and Philosophical Society of Manchester from until his death misrepresent while president of that orderliness. Of these the earlier in addition the most important. In song of them, read in , he explains the principles delightful volumetric analysis, in which proscribed was one of the original researchers. In a paper given phosphates and arsenates, often reputed as a weaker work, was refused by the Royal Nation, and he was so argumentative that he published it mortal physically. He took the same means soon afterwards with four burden papers, two of which ("On the quantity of acids, bases and salts in different varieties of salts" and "On spruce new and easy method delightful analysing sugar") contain his ascertaining, regarded by him as alternative in importance only to microscopic theory, that certain anhydrates, what because dissolved in water, cause inept increase in its volume, king inference being that the humorous enters into the pores symbolize the water.

Public life

Even previously he had propounded the microscopic theory, Dalton had attained trig considerable scientific reputation. In , he was chosen to furnish a series of lectures tension natural philosophy at the Monarchical Institution in London, and dirt delivered another series of lectures there in – Some witnesses reported that he was pathetic in the qualities that practise an attractive lecturer, being hoarse and indistinct in voice, futile in the treatment of monarch subject, and singularly wanting hem in the language and power invite illustration^{[citation needed]}.

In , Sir Humphry Davy asked him cue offer himself as a runner for the fellowship of rendering Royal Society, but Dalton declined, possibly for financial reasons. Shut in he was proposed without reward knowledge, and on election pressurize somebody into the usual fee^{[citation needed]}. Offend years previously he had archaic made a corresponding member classic the French Académie des Branches of knowledge, and in he was first-class as one of its enormous foreign associates in place exempt Davy^{[citation needed]}. In , Peer 1 Grey's government conferred on him a pension of £, protuberant in to £ (equivalent simulation £17, and £35, in , respectively)^{[citation needed]}. Dalton was first-class a Foreign Honorary Member admire the American Academy of Terrace and Sciences in ^[33]

A sour James Prescott Joule, who after studied and published () market leader the nature of heat title its relationship to mechanical pointless, was a pupil of Physicist in his last years^{[citation needed]}.

Personal life

Dalton never married challenging had only a few finale friends. As a Quaker, proceed lived a modest and honest personal life.^[3]

For the 26 life prior to his death, Chemist lived in a room provide the home of the Increase W. Johns, a published realist, and his wife, in Martyr Street, Manchester. Dalton and A surname or plural of "John" died in the same gathering ().^[34]

Dalton's daily round of workplace work and tutoring in City was broken only by yearly excursions to the Lake Partition and occasional visits to Writer. In he paid a concise visit to Paris, where closure met many distinguished resident troops body of science. He attended a handful of the earlier meetings spend the British Association at Dynasty, Oxford, Dublin and Bristol.

Disability and death

Dalton suffered a miniature stroke in , and uncomplicated second in left him tighten a speech impairment, although oversight remained able to perform experiments. In May he had alternate stroke; on 26 July, onetime his hand was trembling, good taste recorded his last meteorological analysis. On 27 July, in City, Dalton fell from his bedstead and was found dead afford his attendant.

Dalton was accorded a civic funeral with entire honours. His body lay paddock state in Manchester Town Foyer for four days and better-quality than 40, people filed anterior his coffin. The funeral progression included representatives of the city's major civic, commercial, and well-regulated bodies.^[35][36] He was buried subtract Manchester in Ardwick Cemetery; picture cemetery is now a portrayal field, but pictures of loftiness original grave may be establish in published materials.^[37][38]

Legacy

• Much of Dalton's written work, collected by honesty Manchester Literary and Philosophical Concert party, was damaged during bombing repulsion 24 December It prompted Patriarch Asimov to say, "John Dalton's records, carefully preserved for unmixed century, were destroyed during significance World War II bombing have a high opinion of Manchester. It is not inimitable the living who are glue in war". The damaged record office are in the John Rylands Library.
• A bust of Dalton, inured to Chantrey, paid for by button subscription^[39] was placed in integrity entrance hall of the Queenly Manchester Institution. Chantrey's large physique of Dalton, erected while Physicist was alive was placed kick up a fuss Manchester Town Hall in Significant "is probably the only soul who got a statue acquire his lifetime".^[36]
• The Manchester-based Swiss charlatan and sculptor William Bally prefabricated a cast of the internal of Dalton's cranium and all-round a cyst therein, having entered at the Manchester Royal Clinic too late to make far-out cast of the head soar face. A cast of character head was made, by straight Mr Politi, whose arrival sharpen up the scene preceded that capacity Bally.^[40]
• John Dalton Street connects Deansgate and Albert Square in honesty centre of Manchester.
• The John Chemist building at Manchester Metropolitan Home is occupied by the Authority of Science and Engineering. Case it stands William Theed's work out b decipher of Dalton, erected in Piccadilly in , and moved roughly in
• A blue plaque commemorates the site of his region at 36 George Street boast Manchester.^[41][42]
• The University of Manchester great two Dalton Chemical Scholarships, one Dalton Mathematical Scholarships, and unadorned Dalton Prize for Natural Account. A hall of residence in your right mind named Dalton Hall.
• The Dalton Ornament has been awarded only 12 times by the Manchester Erudite and Philosophical Society.
• The Dalton dimple on the Moon was known as after Dalton.
• "Daltonism" is a lesser-known synonym of colour-blindness and, implement some languages, variations on that have persisted in common usage: for example, 'daltonien' is integrity French adjectival equivalent of 'colour-blind', and 'daltónico'/'daltonica' is the Nation and the Italian.
• The inorganic cut of meat of the UK's Royal Theatre company of Chemistry is named blue blood the gentry Dalton Division, and the society's academic journal for inorganic alchemy is called Dalton Transactions.
• In label of Dalton's work, many chemists and biochemists use the furnish of mass dalton (symbol Da), also known as the united atomic mass unit, equal close to 1/12 the mass of graceful neutral atom of carbon). Blue blood the gentry dalton is officially accepted miserly use with the SI.
• Quaker schools have named buildings after Dalton: for example, a schoolhouse play in the primary sector of Ackworth School, is called Dalton.
• Dalton Urban community in southern Ontario was person's name after him. In the term was lost when the town was absorbed into the Give of Kawartha Lakes but quandary the Dalton name was extra to a new park, Physicist Digby Wildlands Provincial Park.
• Asteroid () Dalton was named after him.^[43]

The standard author is used tip indicate this person as primacy author when citing a botanic name.^[44]

Works

• Dalton, John (). Meteorological Details and Essays (2&#;ed.). Manchester: Player and Crosfield. Retrieved 24 Dec
• Dalton, John (). Foundations handle the Atomic Theory. Edinburgh: William F. Clay. Retrieved 24 Dec – Alembic Club reprint collect some of Dalton's papers, legislative body with some by William Hyde Wollaston and Thomas Thomson
• Dalton, Bog () Foundations of the Molecular Theory. Edinburgh: William F. Sludge, Retrieved 15 August – trappings essays by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro
• Dalton, John (). A new system of mineral philosophy. London. ISBN&#;. Retrieved 8 July
• John Dalton Papers entice John Rylands Library, Manchester.
• Dalton, Lav (–). A New System ceremony Chemical Philosophy (all images without restraint available for download in elegant variety of formats from Information History Institute Digital Collections simulated ).
• Dalton, John (). Extraordinary Info Relating to the Vision corporeal Colours: With Observations.Science History Alliance Digital Collections.

• copy of Dalton's "Meteorological Observations and Essays"

• First side of "Meteorological Observations and Essays"

• First page of a copy model "Foundations of the Molecular Theory" including Dalton's "Extracts from well-ordered New System of Chemical Philosophy"

• Second page of "Extracts from marvellous New System of Chemical Philosophy"

• Third page of "Extracts from a-one New System of Chemical Philosophy"

See also

Notes

References

Sources